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Water leakage/seepage Investigation - Building
 
 
 
1. What are the common causes of water leakage?
 
Common causes of water leakage :
 
  • * Leakage in the drainage pipes of the upper, adjacent or your own flat.
  • * Leakage in the water supply pipes of the upper, adjacent or your own flat.
  • * Deteriorated waterproofing of floor slabs or bath-tub seals.
  • * Seepage of waste water or rain water through roof / external wall.
  •  
    water seepage Testing methods
     
  • 1. Dye Tracer Test
  • 2. Electrical capacitance Investigation
  • 3. Electrical Resistance Investigation
  • 4. Microwave Leakage Testing
  • 5. Infrared Thermography Testing
  • 6. Pressure Test
  • 7. Humidity Sensors Test
  • 8. Electrical Earth Leakage Test
  • 9. Flood Testing
  • 10. Water Spray Test
  • 11. Acoustic Leak Testing
  •  
    WATER LEAKAGE ACCURACY OF INVESTIGATION
     
  • 1. Two common sources of water seepage in buildings are from the external, e.g. rainfall, and from above or the alleged source sites, e.g. domestic use of water.
  • 2. The former is obvious and can readily be identified with certainty. The main difficulty is to identify the source/cause of water seepage coming from above (e.g. from the bathroom immediate above an alleged water seepage site).
  • 3. If the parties are cooperative, there is a good chance that the problem of water seepage can be alleviated by investigating/identifying the sources and carrying out proper repair. In majority of the cases, repeated repair will have to be carried out
  •  
    WATER LEAKAGE COMMON METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
     
  • Methodology 1: The alleged source site is first subjected to dyed water to simulate the water source(s). Afterwards, measurement of moisture is carried out in the alleged water seepage site. Typical examples include flooding test, water spray test and dye test. It is generally considered as the most direct means to identify/differentiate different water source(s). However, it is not applicable in majority of the cases due to non-corporation of owners/occupiers of the alleged source site thereby disallowing any flooding test, water spray test or dye test to be carried out from the alleged water seepage site.
  •  
  • Methodology 2: Without simulating the water source(s), measurement of moisture is carried out in the alleged water seepage site. Source(s) and cause(s) of water seepage are interpreted from the measurement and this requires high level of professional knowledge and expertise.
  •  
  • The commonly used techniques for investigating the causes and/or sources of water seepage.
  •  
    Common methods of investigating water seepage
     
  • 1. Dye test - Through thickness penetration
  • 2. Protimeter measurement - Limit to surface
  • 3. Infrared thermography - From surface to nominal depth
  • 4. Microwave moisture meter - Up to 110 mm or more
  •  
    1. Dye Test
     
  • Dye test is the most commonly used technique, inexpensive and requiring minimal technical skills. It is used by the Joint Office as the routine method for systematic investigation and is recommended as a DIY investigation tool (FEHD and BD). Dye test is carried out by ponding the alleged source site (e.g. flooding the bathroom) with dyed water (“the ponding area”). The result is positive if dye is visible from below. Recently, fluorescent dyes are used thereby signs of water seepage are observed from below by an ultraviolet light in dark condition. Quite often dye is not detected from below in the damp area (“negative results”) even though water originates from the ponding area.
  •  
    2. Protimeter Measurement
     
  • Protimeter is a device commonly used to assess the surface moisture content of a material. Surface moisture content is measured through pushing two needles/electrodes into the material. It enables rapid assessment of surface moisture content. Due to the heterogeneous properties of concrete and unknown properties of finishes on the surface of concrete, readings obtained from a protimeter cannot be taken directly as surface moisture content, unless the readings reflect very high moisture content. As precalibration of surface moisture content of concrete is virtually not possible, readings are taken from both affected areas and non-affected areas (or control points) and the values are compared to estimate the surface moisture content of affected areas
  •  
    3. Infrared thermography
     
  • Infrared thermography is based on the principle that wet and dry building components have different rates of heat gain and retention. This technique is normally applied using a hand-held infrared camera with recording device . Wet zone is identified based on physical characteristics of wet material with slower heat gain and heat loss. It may be able to display water paths, hidden water pipes, etc. that are close to the surface. As temperature differential can be very small (between 0.1C to 0.5C) for identifying a wet area, an uneven surface, e.g. spalling/delamination of finishes, may distort the temperature gradient making the thermographic images unreliable. this is usually the case in an affected area
  •  
    4. Microwave moisture meter
     
  • Microwave moisture meter has gained popularity in measuring the moisture content of a material. It is based on the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the material. Moisture content is estimated from the energy loss due to absorption of water. The device includes a generator and a receiver . It has the disadvantage of requiring a good contact surface for both generator and receiver which may not be possible to achieve in majority of the cases. It is also sensitive to heterogeneous nature of concrete that may cause error in the readings obtained from the measurement. As each measurement is presented as averaged moisture up to a certain depth, accuracy is also adversely affected by the presence of cavities, pipes or reinforcement embedded inside concrete.
  •  
  • Apart from dye test with the advantage of identifying water path(s) or source(s) of water seepage directly, the above are all interpretive testing methods. In some cases, microwave moisture measurement may also provide good indication of the water path(s) or source(s) of water seepage but this largely depends on the quality of the test data
  •  
  • Protimeter and infrared thermography can only identify the presence of moisture near the surface. As moisture measurements are indirectly assessed via electrical resistance and heat, respectively, foreign materials inside concrete may cause similar changes on the measurement to that of water. For instance, presence of salt may affect the reading and thus the accuracy of the measurement. Therefore, the data is used to compare the moisture condition between two different areas of the same material, namely control points not affected by water seepage and the affected areas.
  •  
  • Data obtained from the field works has suggested that there exists no universal method that can provide reliable results to identify the cause(s) of water seepage. Method of investigation has to be determined case by case based on the condition of concrete at the surface and in the interior
  •  
  • As indicated in the above, accuracy depends on the condition of the affected areas and how the tests are performed. Correct interpretation of the test results further relies on an understanding of the underlining principle; limitations; and the pros and cons of applying different methods of investigations. We are of the view that there is in lack of an expertise or a unify approach to select the proper tests; to perform the tests and/or to interpret the results. Obviously, it is very difficult if not impossible task for the parties, who are laymen to the tests, to select the tests; to perform the tests and/or to interpret the results, save and except dye test. A performance-based approach is proposed to handle water seepage in buildings.
  •  
    CONCLUSIONS
     
  • Pursuant to reported cases and relevant provisions in the ordinances, the standard of investigation is to be one with high degree of certainty and the investigation so conducted is able to distinguish all possible causes of water seepage. Common difficulties in resolving water seepage disputes are due to (a) inability to identify the source(s)/cause(s) of water seepage and (b) non-corporation of owners/occupiers of premises alleged of causing water seepage. In respect of (a), it depends on the condition of the affected areas; how the tests are performed; and correct interpretation of the test results. It is necessary to improve and/or develop methods of investigating water seepage. As an alternative approach, it is suggested to identify the source(s) of water seepage from moisture readings obtained from alleged water seepage sites and vibration readings obtained from exposed waste pipes without entering the alleged source sites. Further, it is desirable to shift the method of investigation from an informative approach to a consultative approach with interaction by the party/parties. We need to dedicate tools to match the accuracy/reliability of methods of investigation with the goals of the parties and the goals of the investigation and to provide the parties with opportunities to decide how they would like to proceed. By following a performance-based approach, it is possible to reduce the overall cost and time by not carrying out unnecessary and/or unreliable tests. This may ultimately assist the public to resolve the problem of water seepage in buildings.
  •  
    Water Seepage Investigation List
     
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    andaman and nicobar islands | andhra pradesh | arunachal pradesh | assam | bihar | chandigarh | chhattisgarh | delhi | goa | gujarat | haryana | himachal pradesh | jdimapur and kashmir | jharkhand | karnataka | kerala | ladakh | lakshadweep | madhya pradesh | maharashtra | manipur | meghalaya | mizoram | nagaland | odisha | puducherry | punjab | rajasthan | sikkim | tamil nadu | telangana | the dadra and nagar haveli and daman and diu | tripura | uttarakhand | uttar pradesh | west bengal ...
     
    list of our services following districts
     
    alipurduar - i | alipurduar - ii | amdanga | amta - i | amta - ii | arambag | arsha | ausgram - i | ausgram - ii | baduria | bagda | bagmundi | bagnan - i | bagnan - ii | balagarh | balarampur | bally jagachha | balurghat | bamangola | bankura - i | bankura - ii | bansihari | barabani | barabazar | barasat - i | barasat - ii | barjora | barrackpur - i | barrackpur - ii | baruipur | basanti | basirhat - i | basirhat - ii | beldanga - i | beldanga - ii | berhampore | bhagawangola - i | bhagawangola - ii | bhagawanpur - i | bhagawanpur - ii | bhangar - i | bhangar - ii | bharatpur - i | bharatpur - ii | bhatar | binpur - i | binpur - ii | bishnupur - i | bishnupur - ii | bolpur sriniketan | bongaon | budge budge - i | budge budge - ii | bundwan | burdwan - i | burdwan - ii | burwan | canning - i | canning - ii | chakdah | chanchal - i | chanchal - ii | chandipur | chanditala - i | chanditala - ii | chandrakona - i | chandrakona - ii | chapra | chhatna | chinsurah - magra | chopra | contai - i | contai - iii | cooch behar - i | cooch behar - ii | dantan - i | dantan - ii | darjeeling pulbazar | daspur - i | daspur - ii | debra | deganga | deshopran | dhaniakhali | dhupguri | diamond harbour - i | diamond harbour - ii | dinhata - i | dinhata - ii | domjur | domkal | dubrajpur | egra - i | egra - ii | english bazar | falakata | falta | farakka | faridpur durgapur | gaighata | galsi - i | galsi - ii | gangajalghati | gangarampur | garbeta - i | garbeta - ii | garbeta - iii | gazole | ghatal | goalpokhar - i | goalpokhar - ii | goghat - i | goghat - ii | gopiballavpur - i | gopiballavpur - ii | gorubathan | gosaba | habibpur | habra - i | habra - ii | haldia | haldibari | hanskhali | hariharpara | haringhata | haripal | harirampur | harischandrapur - i | harischandrapur - ii | haroa | hasnabad | hemtabad | hilli | hingalganj | hirbandh | hura | illambazar | indpur | indus | islampur | itahar | jagatballavpur | jaipur | jalangi | jalpaiguri | jamalpur | jamboni | jamuria | jangipara | jaynagar - i | jaynagar - ii | jaypur | jhalda - i | jhalda - ii | jhargram | jorebunglow sukiapokhri | kakdwip | kalchini | kaliachak - i | kaliachak - ii | kaliachak - iii | kaliaganj | kaliganj | kalimpong -i | kalimpong - ii | kalna - i | kalna - ii | kalyani | kandi | kanksa | karandighi | karimpur - i | karimpur - ii | kashipur | katwa - i | katwa - ii | keshiary | keshpur | ketugram - i | ketugram - ii | khanakul - i | khanakul - ii | khandaghosh | kharagpur - i | kharagpur - ii | khargram | kharibari | khatra | khejuri - i | khejuri - ii | khoyrasol | kolaghat | kotulpur | krishnaganj | krishnagar - i | krishnagar - ii | kulpi | kultali | kumarganj | kumargram | kurseong | kushmundi | labpur | lalgola | lava | madarihat | magrahat - i | magrahat - ii | mahisadal | mal | maldah (old) | manbazar - i | manbazar - ii | mandirbazar | mangolkote | manikchak | manteswar | mathabhanga - i | mathabhanga - ii | mathurapur - i | mathurapur - ii | matiali | matigara | maynaguri | mayureswar - i | mayureswar - ii | mejhia | mekliganj | memari - i | memari - ii | midnapore | minakhan | mirik | mohammad bazar | mohanpur | moyna | murarai - i | murarai - ii | murshidabad jiaganj | nabadwip | nabagram | nagrakata | nakashipara | nalhati - i | nalhati - ii | namkhana | nanda kumar | nandigram - i | nandigram - ii | nanoor | narayangarh | nawda | naxalbari | nayagram | neturia | onda | ondal | panchla | pandabeswar | pandua | panskura | para | patharpratima | patrasayer | pedong | phansidewa | pingla | polba - dadpur | potashpur - i | potashpur - ii | puncha | purbasthali - i | purbasthali - ii | pursura | purulia - i | purulia - ii | raghunathganj - i | raghunathganj - ii | raghunathpur - i | raghunathpur - ii | raiganj | raina - i | raina - ii | raipur | rajarhat | rajganj | rajnagar | ramnagar - i | ramnagar - ii | rampurhat - i | rampurhat - ii | ranaghat - i | ranaghat - ii | rangli rangliot | ranibundh | raniganj | raninagar - i | raninagar - ii | ratua - i | ratua - ii | sabang | sagar | sagardighi | sahid matangini | sainthia | salanpur | salbani | saltora | samserganj | sandeshkhali - i | sandeshkhali - ii | sankrail | sankrail | santipur | santuri | sarenga | serampur uttarpara | shyampur - i | shyampur - ii | simlapal | singur | sitai | sitalkuchi | sonamukhi | sonar pur | suri - i | suri - ii | sutahata | suti - i | suti - ii | swarupnagar | taldangra | tamluk | tapan | tarakeswar | tehatta - i | tehatta - ii | thakurpukur mahestola | tufanganj - i | tufanganj - ii | udaynarayanpur | uluberia - i | uluberia - ii | vishnupur ...
     
    list of our services following districts
     
    car nicobar | diglipur | ferrargunj | great nicobar | little andaman | mayabunder | nancowry | port blair | rangat | aalo hq | anelih | anini | bagra circle | balemu circle | balijan adc | bameng adc | bana eac | banderdewa circle | baririjo circle | basar adc | bhalukpong eac | bilat circle | boleng adc | bomdila hq | bongkhar circle | bordumsa adc | borduria circle | borum | buragaon eac | chaglagam circle | chambang circle | changlang hq | chayangtajo adc | chetam peer yapu circle | chongkham eac | dadam circle | dambuen circle | dambuk adc | damin circle | daporijo hq | darak circle | daring circle | debeyar co circle | deed circle | deomali adc | desali circle | dirang adc | dissing passo circle | diyun eac | doimukh sdo | dollungmukh circle | dudunghar circle | dumporijo adc | etalin | gangte circle | geku eac | gelling circle | gensi eac | gepen circle | giba circle | gite ripa circle | goiliang circle | gumto circle | gyawe purang circle | hawai hq | hayuliang adc | hunli sdo | itanagar eac | jairampur adc | jamiri circle | jang adc | jengging circle | jomlo mobuk circle | kakoi circle | kalaktang adc | kamba adc | kamengbari doimara circle | kamporijo circle | kangku circle | kantang circle | kanubari adc | katan circle | katang circle | kaying eac | kebang circle | kharsang circle | khenawa circle | khimiyang eac | khonsa hq | kibithoo circle | kimin sdo | kitpi circle | koloriang hq | kombo circle | kora circle | koronu circle | koyu eac | kronli (arzoo circle) | lada circle | laju sdo | lathao circle | lawnu circle | lekang mahadevpur circle | leporiang circle | lhou circle | likabali sdo | limeking circle | liromoba eac | longding hq | longo circle | lumla adc | lyngok longtoi circle | manchal circle | manmao eac | mariyang adc | maro circle | mebo adc | mechuka adc | mengio eac | metengliang circle | miao adc | migging circle | mipi | monigong eac | mopom adipasi circle | mukto circle | nacho sdo | nafra eac | naharlagun eac | nampong sdo | namsai hq | namsing circle | namtok eac | nari adc | new seren circle | nikte kodum circle | nilling circle | nyapin adc | nyobia circle | old ziro sdo | oyan circle | pakke kessang eac | pakoti circle | palin circle | palling circle | pangchao sdo | pangin eac | parang circle | parbuk sdo | pasighat hq | passa valley circle | patuk adc | payeng circle | payum circle | phassang circle | pidi circle | pipsorang circle | pipu dipu circle | pistana circle | piyong circle | pizirang veo circle | polosang circle | puchi geko circle | pumao circle | raga adc | rebo perging circle | renuk circle | richukrong circle | riga eac | roing hq | ruksin adc | rumgong adc | rupa sdo | sagalee adc | sago | sangdupota basar nello circle | sangram sdo | sarli circle | sawa circle | segi gusar circle | seijosa adc | seppa hq | shergaon circle | sibe circle | silsango circle | singa circle | singchung adc | siyum adc | soha circle | sunpura circle | taksing circle | tali adc | taliha adc | tarak lengdi cicle | taraso circle | tato eac | tawang hq | tezu hq | thembang circle | thingbu circle | thrizino adc | tikhak rima putok circle | tinali paglam circle | tirbin eac | toru circle | tuting adc | vijoynagar eac | wakka sdo | wakro circle | walong circle | yachuli adc | yangte circle | yatdam circle | yazali circle | yingkiong circle | yomcha adc | zemithang circle | ziro hq | agamoni | algapur | amguri | athani | azara | badarpur | baganpara (pt) | baghbor | bagribari (pt) | bajali (pt) | balijana | banekuchi | barama pt | barbhag | barkhetri | barnagar (pt) | barpeta | baska | bengtol | bhowraguri | bhuragaon | bihpuria | bijni (pt) | bilasipara pt | biswanath | boitamari | bokakhat | boko | bongaigaon (pt) | chabua | chamaria | chandrapur | chapar pt | chariduar | chenga | chhaygaon | dalgaon (pt) | dangtal revenue circle | dergaon | dhakuakhana (pt-i) | dhekiajuli (pt) | dhemaji | dhing | dhubri | dibrugarh east | dibrugarh west | dimow | diphu | dispur | doboka | donka | doom dooma | dotoma | dudhnai | gauripur | ghograpar (pt) | gogamukh | gohpur | golaghat | golakganj pt | goreswar (pt) | goroimari | gossaigaon (pt) | guwahati | haflong | hailakandi | hajo | harisinga | helem | hojai | jalah (pt) | jonai | jorhat east | jorhat west | kadam | kalaigaon | kalgachia | kaliabor | kamalpur | kampur | karimganj | katigora | katlichara | khoirabari | khumtai | kokrajhar | koya | laharighat | lakhipur | lakhipur | lala | lanka | mahmora | majuli | mangaldoi (pt) | mankachar | margherita | mariani | marigaon | matia | mayong | mazbat | mikirbheta | moran | morangi | na-duar | nagaon | nagarbera | naharkatiya | nalbari | naobaicha | narayanpur | nazira | nilambazar | north guwahati (pt) | north lakhimpur | pachim nalbari | palasbari | patharkandi | pathorighat (pt) | phuloni | raha | ramkrishna nagar | rangia pt | rangjuli | rupahi | sadiya | samaguri | sapekhati | sarthebari | sarupathar | sarupeta (pt) | sibsagar | sidli (pt) | silchar | silonijan | sipajhar | sissibargaon | sonai | sonapur | sonari | sonari | south salmara | srijangram | subansiri (pt-i) | tamulpur | tengakhat | teok | tezpur | thelamara | tihu (pt) | tingkhong | tinsukia | titabor | udalguri | udarbond | ujani majuli circle | bishnupur | borobekra | bungte chiru | chakpikarong | champhai | chandel | chilivai phaibung | chingai | churachandpur | haochong | henglep | island | jessami | jiribam | kakching | kamjong | kangchup geljang | kangpokpi | kangvai | kasom khullen | keirao bitra | khengjoy | khoupum | lamphelpat | lamsang | lhungtin | lilong | lm | longmai | machi | moirang | moreh | mualnuam | nambol | nungba | paomata | patsoi | phungyar | porompat | purul | sahamphung | saikot | saikul | saitu-gamphazol | samulamlan | sangaikot | sawombung | singngat | song song | suangdoh | tadubi | tamenglong | tamenglong north | tamenglong west | tengnoupal | thanlon | thoubal | tipaimukh | tuibong | t vaichong | ukhrul | vangai range | waikhong | wangoi | willong | amlarem | baghmara | bajengdoba | betasing | bhoirymbong | chokpot | dadenggiri | dalu | damalgre | dambo rongjeng | demdema | gambegre | gasuapara | jirang | kharkutta | khatarshnong laitkroh | khliehriat | laskein | mairang | mawkynrew | mawkyrwat | mawlai | mawpat | mawphlang | mawryngkneng | mawshynrut | mawsynram | mawthadraishan | mylliem | nongstoin | pynursla | ranikor | resubelpara | rongara | rongram | saipung | samanda | selsella | shella bholaganj | sohiong | songsak | thadlaskein | tikrikilla | umling | umsning | zikzak | aibawk | bilkhawthlir | champhai | chawngte | darlawn | east lungdar | hnahthial | khawbung | khawzawl | lawngtlai | lunglei | lungsen | ngopa | 'n' thingdawl | phullen | reiek | saiha | sangau | s' bungtlang | serchhip | thingsulthliah | tlangnuam | tuipang | west bunghmun | west phaileng | zawlnuam | aboi | aghunato | aitepyong | akuhaito | akuluto | alongkima | amahator | angjangyang | aquqhnaqua | asuto | athibung | atoizu | baghty | bhandari | botsa | changpang | changtongya | chare | chen | chessore | chetheba | chiephobozou | chingmei | chizami | chozuba | chuchuyimlang | chukitong | chumukedima | chunlikha | dhansiripar | dimapur sadar | englan | ghathashi | hunta | jakhama | jalukie | kebai khelma | kezocha | khezhakeno | khongsa | khuza | kikruma | kiphire sadar | kiusam | kohima sadar | kubolong | kuhoboto | longchem | longkhim | longleng | longmatra | longshen | lotsu | mangko | mangkolemba | medziphema | meluri | merangmen | mon sadar | monyakshu | mopong | naginimora | namsang | ngoungchung | nihokhu | niuland | nokhu | noklak | noksen | nsong | ongpangkong | ongpangkong (n) | panso | pedi (ngwalwa) | peren | pfutsero | phek sadar | phokhungri | phomching | phor | pughoboto | pungro | ralan | razieba | sakraba | sakshi | sangsangnyu | sanis | saptiqa | satakha | satoi | sechu-zubza | sekruzu | seyochung | shamator | shangnyu | sitimi | sotokur | sungro | suruhuto | tamlu | tening | thonoknyu | tizit | tobu | tokiye | tseminyu | tsogin | tsurangkong | tsurungto | tuensang sadar | tuli | v.k. | wakching | weziho | wokha sadar | wozhuro | yongnyah | zuketsa | zunheboto sadar | chungthang | dentam | dzongu | gangtok | gyalshing | jorethang | kabi | mangan | namchi | pakyong | rangpo | ravong | rongli | soreng | yangang | yuksom | amarpur | ambassa | belonia | bishalgarh | dharmanagar | gandacherra | jampuijala | jirania | kailashahar | kamalpur | kanchanpur | karbook | khowai | kumarghat | longtharai valley | mohanpur | panisagar | sabroom | sadar | santirbazar | sonamura | teliamura | udaipur ...
     
    list of our services following countries
     
    India | China | United States | Indonesia | Pakistan | Brazil | Nigeria | Bangladesh | Russia | Mexico | Japan | Ethiopia | Philippines | Egypt | Vietnam | DR Congo | Turkey | Iran | Germany | Thailand | United Kingdom | France | Italy | Tanzania | South Africa | Myanmar | Kenya | South Korea | Colombia | Spain | Uganda | Argentina | Algeria | Sudan | Ukraine | Iraq | Afghanistan | Poland | Canada | Morocco | Saudi Arabia | Uzbekistan | Peru | Angola | Malaysia | Mozambique | Ghana | Yemen | Nepal | Venezuela | Madagascar | Cameroon | Côte d'Ivoire | North Korea | Australia | Niger | Sri Lanka | Burkina Faso | Mali | Romania | Malawi | Chile | Kazakhstan | Zambia | Guatemala | Ecuador | Syria | Netherlands | Senegal | Cambodia | Chad | Somalia | Zimbabwe | Guinea | Rwanda | Benin | Burundi | Tunisia | Bolivia | Belgium | Haiti | Cuba | South Sudan | Dominican Republic | Czech Republic | Greece | Jordan | Portugal | Azerbaijan | Sweden | Honduras | United Arab Emirates | Hungary | Tajikistan | Belarus | Austria | Papua New Guinea | Serbia | Israel | Switzerland | Togo | Sierra Leone | Laos | Paraguay | Bulgaria | Libya | Lebanon | Nicaragua | Kyrgyzstan | El Salvador | Turkmenistan | Singapore | Denmark | Finland | Congo | Slovakia | Norway | Oman | State of Palestine | Costa Rica | Liberia | Ireland | Central African Republic | New Zealand | Mauritania | Panama | Kuwait | Croatia | Moldova | Georgia | Eritrea | Uruguay | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Mongolia | Armenia | Jamaica | Qatar | Albania | Lithuania | Namibia | Gambia | Botswana | Gabon | Lesotho | North Macedonia | Slovenia | Guinea-Bissau | Latvia | Bahrain | Equatorial Guinea | Trinidad and Tobago | Estonia | Timor-Leste | Mauritius | Cyprus | Eswatini | Djibouti | Fiji | Comoros | Guyana | Bhutan | Solomon Islands | Montenegro | Luxembourg | Suriname | Cabo Verde | Micronesia | Maldives | Malta | Brunei | Belize | Bahamas | Iceland | Vanuatu | Barbados | Sao Tome & Principe | Samoa | Saint Lucia | Kiribati | Grenada | St. Vincent & Grenadines | Tonga | Seychelles | Antigua and Barbuda | Andorra | Dominica | Marshall Islands | Saint Kitts & Nevis | Monaco | Liechtenstein | San Marino | Palau | Tuvalu | Nauru | Holy See ...